The Environment

The current data from the Amazon basin indicates that the loss of the world's largest rain forest is accelerating. It is difficult to realize that the great Amazon forest may be gone by 2040. Unfortunately, destruction of habitat tend to be the case for almost all ecosystems on our planet.  The loss of habitat is perhaps the worst out of many severe environmental problems unfolding as the population of the human species increases. However, the recent consensus on climate change as well as ocean acidification are daunting. These issues are the greatest challenges for our species as we enter the new century. Our only possible course of action is to face the problems and to solve them. Lack of knowledge, ignorance and inaction will have grave consequences that will ripple through the planet's ecosystems. This section of the course provides a survey of the environmental problems we are facing.

It is clear that the environmental issues we are facing today are complex and difficult to solve. They have to be solved at all political and social levels ranging from global, national to the local level. As individuals we need to open our eyes to the problems, search for the solutions and act accordingly. Your task is to inform yourself about these matters to gain the knowledge to create as well as participate in these solutions as we try to build a sustainable society. Each individual has an important role to play on our effort to build a sustainable world.         The following list serves as a rough outline of environmental issues. I highly recommend staying attuned to the WorldWatch Institute). Please go to their home page for further information. As an introductory resource to these issues I highly recommend Lester Brown's "World on the Edge" It is a comprehensive overview and action plan well worth reading.

1. Why is a "sense of place" often important to build environmental awareness and an understanding of the problems facing the human species this century?
2. The human species can be identified as the indirect or direct reason for most of the problems associated with the collapse or instability of ecosystems across our planet. What are the two most significant problem causing aspects of the presence of the human species at the current time?
3. What is the current estimate of the world's population?
4. What are the three most populous countries on our planet at the current time? What is their approximate population level?
5. What is the current estimate of the population of the United States?
6. What is the current growth rate of the planet's human population based on the net number of individuals added each second?
7. The use of resource is a major issue as the human population is increasing. Calculate your own ecological footprint. How many acres/hectares of land are necessary to support your standard of living?
8. How many planets would we need to support every human being on our planet assuming that they had the same standard of living as yourself [use the "Ecological Footprint" site above to answer this question]?
9. Do environmental problems and concerns differ between the developed and the developing world? Explain?
10. Can our species produce enough food to sustain the growing human population?
11. What are the four major crops that our species depend upon for food?
12. Fish from the sea has throughout history been considered an endless source of food for our species. The last twenty years have shown otherwise. Describe the problem of overfishing and its effect on fish populations across the world.
13. The oceans cover 71% of the planet's surface. How have the vast habitats in this realm been affected by the human species?
14. What is bycatch?
15. Has the use of energy sources by the human species created environmental problems? Explain?
16. Why does the search and access to energy sources often override environmental concerns?
17. What are the most common energy sources for the human population in the developed countries?
18. Are there good alternatives to fossil fuels? What kind of sustainable energy policy would you suggest would be a wise course of action for our country? Are there any "clean" sources of energy?
19. The use of gasoline is a good example of the high use of fossil fuels in the industrialized world. Is it possible to curve the usage of fossil fuels? How?
20. Some major car makers are introducing gas-hybrid engines on the market. How do these engines differ from regular combustion engines? How do these gas-hybrid cars differ in mileage per gallon compared to an average car or truck?
21. What is smog? Where does it come from? Are there any harmful effects associated with high concentrations of smog?
22. Explain the phenomenon of acid rain? What is its source? What kind of effects does it have on the environment?
23. What is ocean acidification? Why is the ocean becoming acidic?
    
24. What is the importance of the ozone layer?
25. Why is the amount of ozone in the upper atmosphere decreasing? How did researchers notice the change?
26. What are the negative effects of a thinner ozone layer?
27. What is global warming? What is its cause and what are the possible consequences of an increased average temperature on our planet? How does the concept of climate change differ from global warming? How are they related? Can you give examples of climate change across the world?
    
28. The human population has a tendency to release harmful chemical compounds in association to larger chemical industries but also in other practices. Use DDT [(d(ichloro)d(iphenyl)t(richloroethane)] as an example to explain the harmful effects of some chemical compounds.
29. What is habitat fragmentation? Why is this considered to be one of the worst environmental problems on our planet? Give an example?
30. Why is the building of roads directly linked to the fragmentation of habitats? How is "bushmeat" associated with road building?
31. Why is it difficult for many wild species to maintain healthy and stable population levels in fragmented habitats?
32. What does it mean if a species is endangered? Examine the IUCN Red List!
    
33. Another very good example of habitat destruction is that of the coral reefs across the world. What is happening to the reefs? Why do biologists consider the decline in reef habitat to be a serious problem?
34. Define the concept of extinction.
    
35. Why is the current time period often viewed as the era of the sixth mass extinction? Explain?
36. How can we protect endangered species?
37. Is it our responsibility as humans to protect the life and existence of other species? Why or why not?
38. The number of environmental problems facing us this century is enormous. How can we as a species face this challenge? What kind of steps need to be taken on a personal level? On the government level? On the world level (e.g. United Nations)?
39. How is the problem of consumerism in affluent nations linked to the environmental problems discussed in class? Story of Stuff!
    
40. Is it possible to build a sustainable future society?
41. What kind of steps have you taken (or can take) on a personal level to contribute to the solution to the world's most critical issue?
42. Can you make a difference........?

The Human Population -      Since 1850 our population has grown from 1 billion to a staggering more than 7 billion individuals on planet Earth. The human population reached 7 billion in October 2011. Currently, there are more than 7 billion people on the planet. Five children are born every second and two people die, i.e. three additional human beings are added on to the planet every second. What is the carrying capacity of our planet?      The exponential growth of our population combined with an excessive use of resources are the main causes of the environmental issues we are facing this century. Regardless of nationality it is clear that a reduction in family size and resource consumption will improve our cause. Family planning, education for both men and women as well as a supportive international network in terms of policies and sharing of wealth are key components of the solution we seek. Current predictions indicate that our population will stabilize around 9-10 billion people in 2050.

Web Activity: Population Growth

NG: 7 Billion People http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/the-magazine/the-magazine-latest/ngm-7billion/

The Issues: Food - Our species depends on three main sources of food: agriculture, domestic animals as well as the fisheries across the world.      In agriculture we have become dependent on four major crops: wheat, corn, rice and potatoes. With the help of technology in terms of machinery, transport, irrigation, fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides we have essentially maximized and utilized the available cropland across the world. Our harvests are unevenly distributed and 1/5 of the human population is malnourished. The effects of agriculture are staggering: loss of topsoil into our rivers (and ultimately the ocean) via erosion, diversion of water from aquatic systems via irrigation, salinization effects due to irrigation and contamination of soil and water via pesticides and herbicides.      Livestock follows a similar pattern since the animals mostly depend on a steady production of grains or the use of "lower grade" range lands. The effects are similar and increasing in magnitude as the world population increases its demand for meat products. The worst effect of agriculture and livestock is the destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats (often referred to as habitat fragmentation). The lumber industry and human construction efforts also contribute substantially to this problem. Only now do we realize the enormous effect on the diversity of other species as well as their future existence.      The fisheries seemed to be the source of an endless supply of food back in the 1960's. Since this time the decline in catch as well as in many fish populations has been dramatic. We have lost more than 90% of the fish populations since 1950! Overfishing is now a normal observation across the seas of our world. Our technological innovations, in terms of boats, processing, equipment, sonar, radar, telecommunications and spotting planes, have caused global overfishing to an enormous extent.  Many fisheries have collapsed or are in the process of collapse as well as in the drastic collapse of numerous fish populations. Eat fish wisely! The Monterey Bay Aquarium continuously update an excellent Guide to Seafood (west coast) which is highly recommended.

The Monterey Bay Aquarium gives a red rating to several fish species: These are ALL examples of overharvested and overconsumed species. As we consume them we are making it more difficult for the wild population to recover. Remember that as long as there is a demand for these fishes they will be harvested. This is why the fish counter in your market tend to always have a plentiful supply of these species unless the manager is environmentally responsible. As the consumer you have the power to curve the demand for these fish species. Farmed Atlantic Salmon should also be avoided. It is recommended that we as consumers avoid these species for the time being (i.e. decrease the demand) so the populations of these species get a chance to recover. The image to the will lead you to the current list from the Monterey Bay Aquarium's web site.

     Currently we are having difficulties in feeding a population of more than 7 billion people. Will we be able to provide enough food for 8-12 billion humans in 40 years?

Waste - One of the major problems in the developed world is overconsumption. The magnitude of the problem increases as each nation across the planet improves its economy and by default its consumption of resources. Clearly the degree of consumption in the developed world has to decrease to accommodate the increased consumption in the developing world. If every human consumed as much as we do in United States it would be necessary to use the resources of four additional planets! Growing up in the United States seems like a harmless affair but the ecological footprint is enormous. Please calculate your own footprint with the "Ecological Footprint Calculator".
Waste includes the direct and indirect effects of using materials ranging from food, lumber, metals, glass, oil, plastic and fibers in every item we own or use. The resulting waste needs to be incinerated, stored or processed. Human waste alone can cause formidable problems in terms of potential spread of disease via water.

Toxins - Our use of an enormous chemical industry has led to the release of numerous harmful compounds into the environment via air and water. In agriculture the use of herbicides and pesticides has led to a growing concentration of many of them within different trophic levels in the ecosystem. The most famous example is the case of DDT. Each of us harbor a growing concentration of these compounds in our adipose tissues. At this point in time we are not certain about the long-term effects of the compounds.

Air Pollution
     The continuous release of fumes and exhausts from sources ranging from chemical and power plants to vehicles and sprays/paints has led to a worsened air quality. This is especially noticeable in metropolitan areas as we well know.  Much progress has occurred over the last fifty years in this realm. Unfortunately, the increased number of individuals in metropolitan areas and the accelerating use of resources per capita has triggered a long battle.

Smog - Mostly due to the release of byproducts from car exhaust as well as power plants. When exposed to sunlight many of these compounds change chemical form (photochemical smog) with a peak effect around 1 or 2pm in the afternoon.

Acid rain - Linked to the use of fossil fuels, especially coal, in power plants. The release of SO₂ will later lead to the production of H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid) when combined with water. Precipitation allows the acid to move with local weather patterns causing effects in areas remote from the source. The lowered pH in soils affect the health of trees which over time become more vulnerable to attack from fungi, insects and other parasites. Large areas in eastern Europe are affected. In a similar fashion lakes are affected. In Scandinavia the majority of the lakes have been strongly affected by acid rain.

The Ozone Layer - The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as other compounds in air conditioners, refrigerators, and as propellant in spray cans, has led to a major decrease in the amount of ozone (O₃) in the upper atmosphere. This is especially noticeable in the area over Antarctica in September/October every year.  The extremely cold temperatures in the upper atmosphere during the Antarctic winters speed up the breakdown of ozone in the presence of CFCs.  The ozone layer blocks a substantial amount of the radiation from the sun. Its presence protects many living organisms from radiation damage. Even though the use of CFCs is banned in the developing world we are still seeing the effects of the compound.

Climate Change - The increased average global temperature has become noticeable over the last few decades. It has been established that climate change is a reality. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) announced in October 2013 that climate change is real and that humanity is extremely likely to have been the driving force behind the change.  The IPCC has currently issued three reports (their fifth overall). Part 1 addresses the physical science behind climate change, part 2 the consequences and part 3 (released March 2014) focuses on adaptation and mitigation. In April 2014 the US issued a National Climate Assessment report. It is sobering to read these reports. Currently President Obama has taken measures to mitigate climate change and our nation has reached an agreement with China. This means that the world's two largest emitters of carbon dioxide will be in a position to reach towards an international agreement in future climate talks.

Unfortunately, many governments across the world refuses to recognize the problem as a few nations scramble to take preventive measures and mitigate the process. Several gases (carbon dioxide, methane, water) in the atmosphere block heat from escaping from the planet. In that sense these gases work as a global thermostat. Since the 1960s it has become clear that the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere has steadily increased at the same time as the average global temperature has increased about +0.9 degrees Celcius. The main effects of the increase in temperature is the melting of the ice cap at the south pole leading to an increased sea level as well as the unknown effects on the life cycles of organisms across the planet. About half of the human population is located in cities along the coast as well as on the fertile farmland in the deltas of the rivers at the coast. To counteract the problem we will need to focus on how to decrease the considerable amounts of carbon dioxide we are currently releasing into the atmosphere. The bulk of the release comes from the burning of fossil fuels. Most of the sources are power plants as well as the enormous fleet of cars across the world. Our sudden taste for Sport Utility and other large Vehicles has compounded the problem since these cars produce about twice the amount of carbon dioxide compared to the economy cars. Our car fleet was at its highest efficiency in the early 80's after the big oil crisis in the 70's. New efficient car models (the gas hybrids) are currently being marketed. E.g. the 2014 Toyota Prius consumes about 50 miles per gallon [it is actually somewhat lower which also is the case for all cars in terms of the "announced" mpg values]. Clearly it is an investment to follow this new technology.

     There have been many warm and cold periods in the history of the earth (just think about the ice ages). We are currently at the end of a cold period. Just 5,000 years ago it was much warmer on our planet and the sea levels were much higher. These changes are not well understood but are related to more complex astronomical aspects such as the varying distance from the earth to the sun (Milankovitch cycles). Global climate is complex and we are still trying to understand the difficult dynamics of our atmosphere and our oceans with their currents. Facts and fiction often collide when people discuss global warming.

     A minority of scientists disagree with that global warming is currently taking place or argue that it is a natural cycle not caused by mankind. One should keep in mind that any remedy to global warming involves decreasing the release of carbon dioxide. Such a remedy involves costs, which will of course reduce profit margins in the industrial sector (as well as other sectors in our economy). Any remedy (specifically: a reduction of the use of fossil fuels) will take decades to have an effect on the climate. As a consequence there is a strong resistance to accept scientific knowledge that trigger a cost now with benefit at a much later time. It is not surprising that the United States has been very resistant to take measures to curve the release of greenhouse gases.  Interestingly, there is still some forces that deny climate change and human involvement in the process (see climate change denial).

     However, there is consensus in the scientific community that global warming is for real:the increase in global temperature over the last century is directly linked to human activities. Numerous observations related to global climate change have taken place over the last few decades.

     The dramatic changes that have occurred over the last hundred years (especially the last few decades) provide strong evidence for global warming. These changes have taken place during the same time as the human species has dramatically increased the use of fossil fuels and as a consequence released an enormous amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

• The Discovery of Global Warming - Outstanding resource describing the current evidence for global warming as well as the history behind our understanding of this important environmental issue
• Global Warming - from the Union of Concerned Scientists
• Climate Change - EPA's web site
• Climate Change from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (excellent reports on climate change (2013/2014))
  

NPR: The Fight Against Global Warming Has Begun [December 2014]

Energy
     The use of energy follows the same pattern as other material goods. Developed countries use an enormous amount per capita at the same time as the use per capita is steadily increasing. We use more energy than ever per person! Overall, we have relied heavily on the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and methane) over the last two hundred years. The use of oil surpassed coal early in the century as the use of cars as a mode of transportation became popular. Other energy sources heavily developed during the 20th century includes hydroelectric power and nuclear power.
Alternative source have been explored but not promoted over the last few decades. These include wind, solar and geothermal power sources. It is important that we provide support towards the development of alternative energy sources considering the fact that the energy we currently rely upon has a limited supply. We do discover new sources (e.g. of oil) over time, but the hunger for energy is accelerating. It is not likely that we can meet the energy demands of the 21st century unless we develop an alternative source.
     The environmental consequences of traditional energy use ranges from air pollution (all the effects above) to water pollution. The meltdown at the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl in 1986 as well as the 2011 crisis at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan speak for themselves as one considers nuclear power as a source of energy. There is still no solution for processing and storing the nuclear waste from the nuclear power plants across the world. Several nations in the developed world have taken measures to reduce nuclear power (e.g. Germany) in response to the negative views in their populace. However, removing nuclear power plants from the electricity grid puts pressure on other sources of electricity generation. Clearly a move towards increased efficiency on every level is a critical measure. 
     It is peculiar that we cannot develop sustainable technology in which we as a society use less energy. As usual we have difficulties thinking about preventing the problem rather than solving it after a crisis occurs.

In everything we do as a species we tend to take over resources used by other species. Main examples in biology has always been the destruction of the rain forest or the loss of coral reefs in the marine realm. However, you can examine any ecosystem (terrestrial or aquatic) and find that the human population growth over the last two centuries has led to an enormous loss of wilderness and as a consequence there is less habitat for other organisms. Typically the pattern of habitat destruction is linked to the building of roads with accompanying development of the surrounding land. Agriculture and logging has taken an enormous toll on natural habitats over the centuries. Unfortunately, the fish bone pattern you noticed in the picture from the Amazon rain forest at the top of the page is a common observation. Very quickly the habitat becomes fragmented. It may appear that the organisms "trapped" in a fragment are fine as they go on with their lives. Over the last few decades we have learned that many species cannot survive long-term in such fragments. Among other things their isolation leads to a decrease in genetic diversity. The building of roads and the arrival of people has also triggered a trade referred to as the "bushmeat" trade. Hunters enter the forest to capture birds, reptiles and a variety of mammals. Their meat is prepared and sold to hungry people willing to buy the meal. The number of hunters are having a major effect on wildlife. Other individuals are engaged in trapping animals that then are sent to other countries to be sold as pets (do not purchase exotic pets). As you can imagine wildlife populations rapidly decline in areas bordering a human presence. The loss of habitat is the most severe of our environmental problems. We are simply running out of space. Calculate Your Ecological Footprint to get an idea about the space necessary to support your standard of living. Make sure to also find out how much area that is necessary to support all human beings on the planet at the same standard of living. The results may surprise you!

Rain Forests - Status

NPR: Changing Climate Means Changing Oceans  [January 2011]

NPR: Preparing for a Warmer Planet (April 2011)

• WWF Living Planet Report 
• The World Wildlife Fund
• Audubon Magazine
• GRIST - an environmental magazine on the web
• 6 Billion Human Beings - Simplistic but very educational in terms of showing the magnitude of human population growth.
• Calculate your Ecological Footprint - The results may surprise you....(so how many planets like the Earth do we need?.

Recommended Readings: (below - great places to start)

Page created by: Peter Svensson Updated: December 5,  2014